CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS
AND DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
Preface
As Kathryn Schultz explains in her short essay The
Pessimistic Meta-induction from the History of Science, “Because so
many scientific theories from bygone eras have turned out to be wrong, we must
assume that most of today’s theories will eventually prove incorrect as
well.” Knowledge creators realize “that
they are part of a long process of approximation. They know they are constructing models rather
than revealing reality.” (Schultz, K. in
Brockman, J., ed., 2012, p. 30) David
Deutsch describes this phenomenon as “emergence.” He states “The partial success of each theory
in a sequence of improving theories is tantamount to the existence of a ‘layer’
of phenomena that each theory explains successfully – though, as it then turns
out, partly mistakenly.” (Deutsch, 2011,
p. 111). He continues to explain: “With the hindsight provided by each
successive theory, we can see not only where the previous theory made false
predictions, but also that wherever it made true predictions this was because
it had expressed some truth about reality.”
In consideration of this, any conclusions presented here are given not as
absolute truths, but rather, come with the understanding that knowledge
creation is process of gradual accumulation, and are to be viewed as
intermediary steps on the path towards a more perfect understanding.
Additionally,
because the nature of ethnographic study is to produce “thick” detailed
description of a single case study, and not broad, generalizable data, the
conclusions drawn here relate only to this particular case study, although some
of the patterns identified may have reach beyond its own confines. As reach is defined as “The ability of some
explanations to solve problems beyond those that they were created to solve” (Deutsch,
2011, p. 30), it may be the burden of future studies to demonstrate which of
these patterns do have reach, and under what circumstances.
5.1 Conclusion
Within the tradition of ethnographic research,
conclusions arise at three levels: item
level, pattern level, and structural level.
(LeCompte & Schensul, 1999, pp. 151 – 5) Initial item level conclusions were reached
early on in the literature review of this study, and served to provide the frameworks
used for analyzing data. Additional
items emerged during the course of the research as the sum of individual
Internet-mediated activities performed, both those reported in the ethnography,
and by language learners through surveys and interviews. At the pattern level, themes, typically those
matching individual activities with the framework codes indicating (affective
and learning) elements they comprise, arise.
An example would be the observation that blogging offers opportunity for
L2 output, while also generating agency in the sense in which Gee uses
the word, as ‘a real sense of ownership over what they are doing.’ Finally, the structural level of analysis provides
“the entire picture.” While the first
level of analysis has been well explored in Chapter Four, Results and
Discussion, the latter two levels of analysis point towards and are therefore
detailed in the following section 5.2, Implications for Learning. First, however, let us re-examine our
research questions:
1.
Firstly, from the emic perspective, in
the process of non-instructed, Internet-mediated L2 activity, what activities
enable agency
[H1] and
best encapsulate the elements of both play and positive affect while leading to
L2 acquisition? ‘Internet-mediated L2 activities’ includes a
broad spectrum of modalities available for L2 activity on the Internet, ranging
from chat to blogging, games, and others, as will be discussed further in the literature
review portion of this document. The
focus here is both on gaining insights into the mechanisms of the technology
and the user experience of such technologies.
[H2]
Based
upon all aspects of the research performed, it is clear that those activities
which most enable or elicit the experience of agency depend first and
foremost on the individual learner.
Considering that agency is intertwined with volition, each
learner has their own personal set of priorities, likes, and dislikes. Therefore, I can only speak to those activities
which enabled agency for me, while eliciting play and positive affect,
and of those reported by other learners.
For myself, activities which came to the forefront were: chatting, writing blog posts, pursuing
directed activities, and engaging with videos.
Those which did not match up were games, virtual environments, and
listening and reading activities. With
the exception of writing blog posts, I found the same was true for the majority
of learners of both English and Thai. And,
for all learners, without exception, chatting online in one’s second language stands
out as the single most activity to generate agency while engaging
learners in a meaning-focused flow experience. Because of the centrality
of the social element in chatting, it is also the one activity in which
learners were most likely to feel themselves at play rather than at
work, and therefore to consider themselves at the time as people, rather than
as learners or students. Because of the affective element of play within
chatting, I would tend to agree with Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen (2009) with
regard to their broad definition of play as an attitude towards one’s activity,
rather than as a specific activity in and of itself. Another activity that
stands out, to a lesser degree, as central to many learners is that of using
video online.
However,
many individual learners, of both Thai and English, had their own personal
preferences, some even bordering on mania, for specific online activities. For EK, these activities involved engaging in
fandoms, watching series programmes, and writing joint fiction. TK displayed a
passion for activities provided on directed learning sites such as its4thai.com
and english2thai.com. EC highlighted his
experience seeking cultural knowledge through sites such as that hosted by the
British Council.
With
regard to insights into the mechanisms of the technology and the user experience
of such technologies, the first pertinent observation is that the vast majority
of learners, regardless of L2, tend to use multiple Internet-based platforms or
functions simultaneously. Another common
theme was that of general complaint regarding the shortcomings of translation
sites, and the relative lack of opportunity to practice both listening and
speaking online. Through my own
experience, I also found that those sites offering listening activities lacking
in technical options, such as variable playback speed and scroll-over
translation, by which they would be greatly enhanced. Finally, nearly all
learners reported utilizing sites for directed language learning, most of which
provide ‘game-like’ activities or exercises.
Based upon my personal experience with such sites, those aspects which
do enhance the affective experience of activities follow many of the qualities
or mechanisms outlined by McGonigal, namely:
discrete, achievable tasks, fun failure, sufficient and immediate
feedback, and a sense of ‘leveling up.’
Additionally, I noticed the propulsive effect of activities which have a
kind of automaticity, allowing the learner to focus immediately on the correct
solution or answer, without having to consider the how or why of what they are
doing.
2.
Secondly, does this emic perspective differ depending on the specific L2 being
acquired through non-instructed, Internet-mediated L2 activity, and do
similarities also occur? The two L2
being examined here are Thai and English.
The
link between these two questions lies in the conjecture that the L2 acquisition
process, regardless of the target L2, basically proceeds in a similar
fashion.
Because of multiple
confounding factors, such as age, culture, and others, any statement concerning
differences between Thai and English L2 learners quickly becomes muddled and
inconclusive. Nonetheless, based on the
survey and interview results, I can state that similarities in their experience
of, and affective reaction to various Internet mediated L2 activities override
differences.
To begin with background
differences which may serve as confounding factors, data revealed that TLLs
generally were older and had fewer years of L2 study. While they used the Internet more frequently,
they spent a smaller proportion of their online time, and did a narrower
variety of activities, in the L2, than ELLs.
TLLs generally enjoyed
the same online activities in their L2 as ELLs, but more so. However, they also expressed greater
frustration or difficulty in using the Internet in their L2 than did ELLs. This frustration was noted particularly with
regard to level of language difficulty, especially in reading oriented
activities. Perhaps because of relative
lack of exposure and familiarity, many TLLs, myself included, expressed a high
degree of frustration with sites entirely in Thai, created for Thai users, than
did ELLs for sites entirely in English, created for native English users. Additionally, some TLLs commented on a
relative lack of interest in Thai language content (perhaps as a result of its
cultural specificity). In contrast, ELLs
expressed enthusiasm for the greater amount of useful information available in
English online. However, they also
reported uncertainty regarding the correctness of English which they might
encounter online, as so much content is produced by non-native speakers (as
well as non-professional native speaker writers with a tenuous, at best, grasp
of English grammar, sentence structure, and spelling). And finally, many ELLs
commented enthusiastically on the ability the Internet offers them to chat with
friends, both native and non-native speakers, worldwide. As Thai is a national rather than
international language, this option was not featured in any comments by TLLs.
3. Does this conjecture
also hold true for L2 acquisition in an Internet-mediated environment? If some differences do exist, these can then
be seen as areas in which any conclusions regarding Thai L2 acquisition may not
be transferrable to English L2 acquisition, and vice versa. It may also be interesting to consider
whether such possible differences result from differences in the target L2, or
differences in the cultural and technical knowledge backgrounds of the
participants. If similarities exist in
some areas, these may be areas in which any observations or conclusions are
transferable and applicable to any L2[H3] .[H4]
While
it has long been a topic of debate as to whether the L2 acquisition process is
primarily the same or different depending on the target L2, this question has
been broken down into a number of sub-factors.
These include the learner’s motivational profile, the learning
environment, previous other L2 study, and the degree of difference between the
learner’s native language and target language.
With specific regard to differences between English and Thai as target
L2s, the issues of learners’ identities and language functionality also come
into play, as English is a global language, and Thai is not. For this same reason, it is evident that
there are indeed significant differences in the learning environments
accessible through the Internet to learners of either language. As Thai serves as a national language only,
it presents the thoughts, concerns, themes, and collective knowledge of the
Thai nation and people only. English, on
the other hand, as a global and international language, is the default language
of the Internet, with the vast bulk of content (more that 80% of Internet home
pages are in English) (http://englishenglish.com/english_facts_8.htm) available
on the Internet is available in English.
Information from Wikipedia indicates that: “Estimates of the percentages of Web sites
using various content languages as of 30 December 2011: English - 56.6%, Thai – 0.3%.”
Nonetheless,
the results of this study appear to indicate that with regard to the learning
and affective mechanisms of online L2 activity, similarities outweigh
differences. Any differences that do
exist are minor, and relate more to differences in the online presence of the
two languages, and differences in the cultural and technical knowledge
backgrounds of the participants, rather than differences in the actual second
language acquisition process.
5.2 Implications for Online Learning
Based on the
data accumulated, we can summarize the types of learning as well as the
predominant affective reactions to the main types of online activity reviewed
in this study. Chatting
offers multiple benefits by engendering opportunities for meaning focused
input, production, and interaction. In
comparison to live conversation, for which it serves as a parallel activity, it
allows participants freedom of effort, in being able to respond when one likes,
and also use of JIT and on-demand functions, which may partially explain reduced
anxiety levels. Input and feedback from
interlocutors can offer participants a chance to focus on form, and to practice
and learn set phrases, and the type of vocabulary to which participants are
exposed is usually more colloquial than that found in written texts. Chatting can also serve as scaffolding for
live conversation.
Reading, obviously, provides
language input. Based on the data, the
importance of material that is appropriate to the learner’s level is
clear. This is a concern which may not
always be effectively addressed by unaided learners, and offers an opportunity
for teacher input. Another concern,
particularly for online readers, is the assured correctness of any chosen text,
again, an area for teacher input.
Finally, what emerged as crucial in the selection of online reading
material is the element of personal interest.
Also, from my own personal experience with vocabulary and grammar
focused websites with no accompanying text, and online texts with no
accompanying grammar or vocabulary focus, any reading passage should ideally be
integrated with a relevant vocabulary and grammar focus.
Online
listening activities are usually, and ideally, accompanied by a transcript and
/ or occur within a contextualizing video.
As with reading passages, they obviously provide input, and the
importance of level-appropriate material is clear. With regard to technical features, most
online listening activities could be greatly enhanced by a few, simple
changes. Variable speed playback allows
learners to ramp up ability; text which changes color as it occurs audibly (as
with karaoke text) allows learners to keep track of where they are; and scroll
over features could allow learners JIT access to meanings and individual word
pronunciation. Some of these technical
features would serve well to enhance reading focused online activity as well.
Writing online, here subsumed under
the heading of blogging, obviously provides opportunity for output. It also allows participants opportunities for
developing a personal voice, and the creation of and investment in one or many
online identities. More than any other
online activity, it allows learners to exercise agency as ownership over
what they are doing. It also allows
participants to customize their activity, opportunity to contextualize lexis, and
to create their own scaffolding and system thinking. The type of vocabulary
acquired through blogging can vary widely, but is likely to be of personal
relevance to the learner. Finally, the
importance of finishing what one has started should not be underestimated.
Directed
sites for the learning of particular second languages seem to hold some
attraction for all learners. They frequently
offer ‘game-like’ aspects, which make activities more motivating and fun: discrete, achievable tasks, fun failure,
automaticity, feedback, and leveling up.
The type of vocabulary usually
acquired through such sites is primarily functional. Finally, as with games, which I do not focus
on here due to their relative lack of popularity within this study, online
activity should appropriately match a learner’s profile. While many learners prefer play to study, and
are therefore attracted to games and game-like activity, some are not. For more ‘serious’ learners, such activity
may not be motivating or appropriate.
With
video, as with reading, the importance of a learner’s personal interest in the
subject matter is paramount. Video is
the most accessible of all online activities in that it can be an almost
entirely passive experience, requiring the learner to simply choose, click and
consume. However, in order to learn from
videos, the learner must develop a methodology.
Ultimately, watching video provides listening practice for
learners. Therefore, the methodology is
not dissimilar to that required for listening activities: the application of effort to identify and
learn unknown vocabulary, the need for repeated listening / viewing, and,
ideally, the execution of some sort of comprehension checking activity, which
might comprise a set of teacher designed questions, or alternately some sort of
learner generated, text, audio, or video based response.
5.2.1 Implications for Autonomous Learning
There
is a direct positive relation between agency and autonomy, and between
autonomy and motivation. Nevertheless, autonomy
must be nurtured and coached. Learners
often are accustomed to doing what they are told to do, and such learners may
have a less well-developed sense of their autonomy and how to cultivate it. Therefore, in such cases, a process of
re-learning to do what one wants to do (agency) must be consciously
undertaken. Paradoxically, it is the
role of the teacher to re-introduce the concept of autonomy and help learners
cultivate it.
One
theme which clearly emerged from the data is the importance of personal
interest and significance and their direct positive relation to autonomy, hence
motivation. An obvious starting point
for teachers and learners in search of autonomy is the exploration and
cultivation of personal interests, and the consideration of areas of personal
significance to learners.
Given
the centrality of chatting in this study, in data coming both from the
ethnography and the surveys and interviews, it would appear that both agency
and autonomy are closely related to community and relationship building. EK’s experience with fandoms and writing fan
fiction serves as an excellent example of how involvement in a community of
like-minded people expands and productively channels agency, and vice
versa. For this reason, encouraging
learners to collaborate and build relationships with others who share similar
interests should serve well to foster further autonomy and language learning.
Furthermore,
autonomy, as well as motivation, can be greatly enhanced by appropriate feedback. This was something I did not receive in my
blogging experience, but which I did encounter through both chatting and sties
for directed language study.
its4thai.com. featured advancing progress bars, while many of the
activities on thai-language.com provided point scores indicating the percentage
of correctly answered items. These
features served to propel my activity, to inform me of where I needed to focus,
and to constantly challenge myself to improve my performance.
Lastly,
although I began this study with only one understanding, or definition, of agency,
I close it with two. While agency
can be conceived as a sixth freedom – to do what one wants, when one wants, it
can also be conceived (in line with Gee’s understanding) as a sense of
ownership over what one does. This
second understanding refers not only to the activity itself, but also to the
product of that activity.
Because
of this, we can see a murky tripartite divide among activities, between those
that are (primarily) consumptive, interactive, and productive, each offering
greater degrees of Gee’s sense of agency. Of course, there is a great deal of overlap
with many activities, for example, the interactive nature of writing joint fan
fiction is also productive, and relies as well on the consumptive aspect of
viewing or reading certain existing genres.
It is also clear that there is an obvious order to types of activity,
one which mirrors language acquisition, of consumptive to interactive to
productive. But, because of the
additional sense of agency imparted by production, it may be sensible to
emphasize productive activities over all others.
Nonetheless,
it is also clear that learner autonomy is equally achievable in any of these
three categories of activity. When a
learner selects a video for consumption they are exercising autonomy to a
degree equal to that in which they are writing a blog post. The crux of autonomy here is the exercise of
free choice. In the interest of
fostering greater autonomy through online second language activity, it is this
aspect of choice that the teacher can help to foster. When learners’ understanding of choice is
informed by a greater awareness of multiple factors – their own ability levels,
their own areas of interest, the range of options available to them, and some
possible methods for exploring and exploiting those options – then they achieve
greater autonomy in their learning.
5.3
Directions for further study
In this study, the focus has been on
learners’ emic perspective towards their online second language activities,
including their affective response to those activities, as well as the learning
implications for those activities. While
the focus has been on learners’ self-directed activities, study of more
structured, including instructed, online L2 activity is also warranted. A number of other areas of interest have been
touched upon in this study, but deserve to be researched in greater depth.
Much
of the emphasis in this study has been on the use of CMC, or chatting. Again, the focus has been on the affective
and learning aspects therein. But
further study, focusing specifically on relationship building, the nature of
various online relationships, and their effect on the second language
acquisition process, would be valuable. Related
to this, online communities and the process of acquisition of their specific linguistic
norms is an area for further research. Also
related is the need for further research into the effects of inter-learner play,
the possibility of transcendence of referential, or social, identity during such
experiences, and ensuing implications for learning.
While
much has been written about the desirability of positive affect during the
learning experience, additional study of the impact of the affective element on
learning is needed. In future it is
quite likely that further exploration of this issue will be conducted in
conjunction with emotions research, making use of state of the art tools such
as brain imaging or MRI .
Another area for further study is
that of the leveraging of agency in online games and other activities. While it has been postulated that the ability
to eschew one’s physically based identity and create a new online persona can
allow learners to interact in new, freer and less restrictive ways than they
would in physical reality, research in this area is scant. The possibilities exist that online activity
can allow learners the opportunity to avoid the types of age, gender and race
biases they might encounter in the ‘real’ world, but have yet to be
proved.
I
have stated: “In natural, uninstructed
L2 acquisition it would appear that implicit knowledge would naturally occur,
while explicit knowledge would require either instruction or metacognitive
analysis on the part of the learner.” Further
research could also be directed to determine what kind of meta-cognitive
analysis occurs in the learner in non-instructed learning which allows
rule-based competency development. Such research could possibly make use of talk
through protocol.
Finally,
as this study is quite limited in scope, a broader study of what
Internet-mediated experiences motivate learners may yield additional patterns
as well as outliers. One outlier encountered in this study, that of fanfiction,
indicates that others may follow, and that each particular outlier may open up
new paths towards additional, highly specialized research.
“If
we knew what we were doing, it wouldn’t be called research.” (Einstein, A. as quoted by De Grey, A. in
Brockman, J., ed., 2012, p. 55)
