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An examination of play, agency
and positive affect in online English and Thai language use by non-native
speakers
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A Thesis Proposal
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Christopher Stern
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1.1 Background and Rationale
An examination of the intersection between technology
and language learning is an overwhelming endeavor. In narrowing the scope of this general topic
it is perhaps better to examine the intersection of emergent technologies and
language learning, whereby we can elaborate on the specific pertinent
technologies. This can effectively
undergo a binary division, between CALL (computer assisted language learning)
and MALL (mobile[device] assisted language learning). Yet this is only one of other possible
divisions, as CALL offers elements such as CMC (computer mediated
communication), virtual worlds, and gaming.
Within the literature, while MALL is typically considered a
learner-centered (class and ‘teacherless’) modality, CALL, in the majority of
the literature, is examined as an element within an educationally defined
setting. With regards to technology,
this review will focus on CALL rather than MALL.
Without exception, authors
of studies related to CALL have positive, optimistic things to say about the
current state and the future of technology-enhanced or mediated language
learning. Studies fall into both qualitative
and quantitative categories, and some of the documents referenced in this
literature review are themselves literature reviews. As this is a constantly emerging field, many
studies effectively try to broadly define ‘state-of-the-art’ at the time of
publication, to the detriment of delving deeper into any singular, particular
aspect. Others however involve esoteric
examinations of single aspects of one specific modality.
What most of the literature
shares in common however is that it is relegated to an etic approach, a teacher’s
rather than a learner’s view, towards the usefulness of various media in
language learning. While this research
will examine a broad scope of related technologies, the focus will be on CALL,
and more specifically, Internet-mediated experiences, but[H1] from the perspective of
MALL in the sense that it is in search of the emic, autonomous (‘teacherless’)
learner-centered learning experiences engendered.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
This research is to be
carried out in search of emic, autonomous (‘teacherless’) learner-centered
learning experiences engendered through Internet-mediated experiences. The goal, or framework of this research, is
to address these three questions:
Firstly, from the emic perspective, in the process of non-instructed,
Internet-mediated L2 activity, what activities enable agency [H2] and best encapsulate the
elements of both play and positive affect while leading to L2
acquisition? ‘Internet-mediated L2 activities’ includes a
broad spectrum of modalities available for L2 activity on the Internet, ranging
from chat to blogging, games, and others, as will be discussed further in the
literature review portion of this document.
The focus here is both on gaining insights into the mechanisms of the
technology and the user experience of such technologies. [H3] Secondly, does this emic
perspective differ depending on the specific L2 being acquired through
non-instructed, Internet-mediated L2 activity, and do similarities also
occur? The two L2 being examined here
are Thai and English. The link
between these two questions lies in the conjecture that the L2 acquisition
process, regardless of the target L2, basically proceeds in a similar fashion. The intersection of these two research
questions should serve to shed light on whether this conjecture also holds true
for L2 acquisition in an Internet-mediated environment. If some differences do exist, these can then
be seen as areas in which any conclusions regarding Thai L2 acquisition may not
be transferrable to English L2 acquisition, and vice versa. It may also be interesting to consider
whether such possible differences result from differences in the target L2, or
differences in the cultural and technical knowledge backgrounds of the
participants. If similarities exist in
some areas, these may be areas in which any observations or conclusions are
transferable and applicable to any L2[H4] .[H5]
1.3 Scope
of the Study
There are two aspects to the research, each serving slightly
differing objectives. The first involves
surveys and interviews of both English and Thai language learners in order to
gain insight into the means by which they experience L2 language use and learning
through Internet-mediated experiences, as well as the emotional character of
those experiences. The second involves the examination from an emic perspective the
researcher’s second language (Thai) learning experience through Internet
mediation (using both mobile device and computer). The time frame for this research is a two [H6] month period.
The areas of focus for both aspects of this study are particularly in
regards to discovering and documenting which varieties of internet-mediated
language-use experience generate 1. the greatest amount of positive affect, and 2. the deepest sense of both agency and
play, while contributing towards
language acquisition. In seeking the greatest
usefulness of data generated through the two aspects of research, I will not
only compare and contrast, but also look for similar themes between online L2
learning experiences, in English or Thai, using the different instruments for
triangulation of data.
Because
of the nature of the research, study location is irrelevant. The relevance to this research regarding
location is that it be conducted by means of internet, on a computer or mobile
device with Thai font capacity (e.g. Thai Windows platform installed) and, in
the case of MMOGs, on a local Thai server.
Regardless, the researcher intends to conduct the bulk of his research
in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
1.4 Significance of the Study
Such a study, regardless of
the specific L2 pursued, has a number of significant implications for the field
of TESOL as a whole. First of all, it
will add to the body of knowledge regarding agency and positive effect in
relation to L2 acquisition experiences, thus pointing both teachers and
learners towards the keys for more affective and effective learning. Secondly, such a study will shed light on
whether Internet-mediated environments can leverage both play and learner
agency, providing possibly more, or better, learning experiences than those
available in traditional classroom settings.
Finally, such a study will point towards greater knowledge in the
pursuit of providing ideal Internet-mediated learning experiences, both
independent of and mediated by a teacher, for learners of all abilities and
styles, and possibly towards new play and game oriented classroom methodologies
as well. The first aspect of the study
gauges the possibility of any broad differences (or demonstrates similarities)
between Internet-mediated L2 acquisition in English and Thai; and the second
provides deep, rich and nuanced insights into such experience.
Internet-mediated
experiences – any experience
achieved through use of the Internet, either by computer (laptop), or mobile
device (hand phone). For the purposes of
this study, the emphasis is on any such experiences which primarily occur
through, rely on, or make use of Thai language as a medium for instruction,
communication, consumption, creation or play.
Positive affect – refers to positive emotion, in all forms. While this study aims to identify possible
triggers of positive affect, I may also frequently make note of occurrences of
negative affect, possibly pointing towards the experiential or technical
deficiencies that trigger them.
Play – While a definition of play
is highly elusive, I will follow a combination of criteria for play as outlined
by a number of authors. These comprise
five freedoms noted by Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen (2009): “1. freedom to fail; 2. freedom to experiment;
3. freedom to fashion identities; 4. freedom of effort; 5. freedom of
interpretation” (4) Additionally, I will
make use of the concepts of play as a point midway between freedom and boredom,
and as an activity characterized by the phenomenon of flow experience
(Csikszentmihályi, 1971, 2007)
Agency – for the purposes of this
study I define agency as a sixth freedom:
the participant’s freedom to participate when and how he wishes.
2.1 Overview Studies
The two primary overview
studies are ‘Current Trends in Online Language Learning,’ by Robert J. Blake
(2011), and ‘New technologies to support language learning,’ by Kervin &
Derewianka (2011).
In the article ‘Current Trends in Online Language Learning’
(2011), Robert J. Blake serves to provide an overview of studies in
online language learning (henceforth: OLL), making very few of his own value
judgments or conclusions. The article
covers four areas: online learning in
general, CALL (computer assisted language learning), social computing (ie.
social networking sites, blogs), and games for language learning. It begins by covering online learning in
general, dividing OLL into 3 models: web-facilitated, hybrid, and totally
virtual. Blake cites information stating
that in the last decade online course growth has been about 19%, while overall
enrollments have grown by only 1.5%.
Furthermore, efficacy studies “showed that students who took all or part
of their classes online performed better than those in traditional face-to-face
learning environments.” (Blake, 2011:
21). Students in hybrid courses did
best. According to studies cited, the greatest value lies in that OLL
environments “stimulate students to spend more time engaged with the second
language (L2) materials.” (ibid)
Blake goes on to discuss
tutorial CALL, which he states generally consists of ‘drill-and-kill’ type
grammar exercises. The next function of
CALL Blake deals with is the use of computers to aid learners in improving both
reading ability and lexis acquisition.
He makes two important points here.
The first is that “developing an adequate L2 lexicon will not happen
without some form of explicit instruction or graded reading program”, and that
the computer can be of help in this regard by “tracking students’ lexical
problems and providing them with multiple exposures to new words through graded
texts, glossing, or explicit instruction” (ibid, 22). This is very much in line with Vygostsky’s
idea of dynamic assessment and its application to C-DA (computer-aided dynamic assessment), which
“would likely follow an interventionist model with mediation offered from a
menu of predetermined clues, hints and leading questions selected in a
lock-step fashion ...C-DA tracks learners’ errors as well as the precise forms
of mediation that prove beneficial” (Lantolf & Poehner, 2010: 282) The
second point he makes is that, with regard to reading comprehension, “students
with access to multimedia glosses (i.e. text plus picture) outperformed all
other groups” (Blake, 2011: 23).
Even more attuned to the
concept of C-DA is Intelligent CALL (iCALL), which is the next topic of Blake’s
review. iCALL utilizes “a modicum of
artificial intelligence”, and “seeks to individualize instruction by using a
record of student’s previous exchanges to determine further instruction”. As a result, it “should be designed to
anticipate students’ mistakes, offer helpful suggestions, and keep track of
their behavior while using the program.” (ibid, 24) Because of the rather technical nature of
Blake’s explanation, he fails to convey the excitement of the fact that iCALL
is, at heart, interaction with an extremely smart computer that tracks one’s
mistakes and the types of clues which help one to overcome them. Kervin & Derewianka, in their review of
similar scope, note that iCALL programs “enable interaction with a ‘patient
tutor’,” that they “are generally free or cheap, they engender confidence, they
can ‘converse’ on a wide range of topics and engage in lengthy interactions, and
they can take on ‘personalities’ and learn as they interact, ensuring novelty.”
(Kervin & Derewianka, cited in
Tomlinson, 2011: 335) While Kervin &
Derewianka comment on a few such programs for English learning, such as
Jabberwock and ‘chatterbot’, according to Blake, there are so far unfortunately
no such programs for English. Accordingly, Blake provides brief
reviews of three iCALL programs for other languages: E-Tutor for German, Tagarela
for Portuguese, and Robo-Sensei for Japanese.
Blake continues by outlining
developments in the use of Social Computing CALL in language teaching. This consists of both asynchronous and
synchronous CMC (computer-mediated communication). Asynchronous CMC includes blogs, wikis,
email, and forums, while synchronous CMC includes various forms of chat, as
well as audio enhanced communication such as Skype. Blake notes the advantages of CMC - it “gives
both the instructors and students the ability to direct the conversational flow
... [and] allows instructors and learners to engage in meaningful negotiations
with all of the positive benefits associated with scaffolding” (Blake,
2011:26). He goes on to explain how it
has been used in task-based language learning, through jigsaw tasks,
information gap and open ended activities.
Other studies cited demonstrate CMC’s effectiveness in exercises
requiring cultural negotiation between native and non-native speakers.
While Blake provides an
overview of games, he seems to offer very little understanding of games, gaming
and what actually makes games motivating.
He describes the categories of single-player, 2 player and MMO
(massively multiple online) games (such as World
of Warcraft, Second Life or Halo).
He outlines some important if obvious points, namely that “games foster
agency,” that “games are always task-oriented or focused on play and often are
accomplished by working in groups” and that “games let players be producers,
not just consumers, by promoting agency, control and ownership.” (Blake,
2011:28)
Blake provides a cursory
review of a number of ‘games’ (the term is used loosely here), including Forgotten World (www.learninggamesnetwork.org),
and Languagelab.com’s presence in Second Life (www.secondlife.com) as well as a few
others. However, considering how recent
his paper is, it is interesting to see that he makes no mention of the British
Council or Avatar English’s more intriguing uses of the Second Life platform as detailed by Kervin and Derewianka in their
publication of the same year. They
describe the British Council’s offering as “an island within Teen Second Life
which is a self-access centre geared towards the learning of English in an
environment that appeals to tech-savvy young people....In this environment
students can explore, meet others and participate in individual and group
activities” Even more promising is
Avatar English’s combination of “Second
Life with Skype and other online teaching tools which allow learners and the
teacher to work together on the same activity.
Classes take place in custom-built virtual classrooms that reflect the
theme of the classes, such as airports, markets, banks and cinemas.” (Kervin &
Derewianka, cited in Tomlinson, 2011: 332[H9] )
While Blake’s paper appears
to be exhaustive, clearly, it is not.
Furthermore, in comparison to Kervin and Derewianka, who offer rich and insightful
detail, Blake’s ‘Current Trends in Online Language Learning’ strikes one as
somewhat of a dry compendium of soon-to-be-outdated information. Nonetheless, it is valuable as a well-written,
concise and informative document detailing the dynamics of some of the current
trends in online language learning, as its title implies. Kervin and Derewinka’s
‘New technologies to support language
learning’ (2011), is written from the perspective of examining “the
quality of learning that these resources facilitate and the extent to which
their use reflects sound learning theory” (Kervin & Derewinka, 2011:
328). They examine the ways in which
VoIP technology, as well as virtual worlds, such as Second Life, as mentioned above, have been put to use in the
language classroom. They also discuss
online resources for listening activities, ‘language immersion’ (see ‘Yabla’
and ‘Virtex,’ibid, 340) sites which feature authentic video and television
clips, videos, drama, interviews, etc. that have been topically organized for
language learning. They further outline
web-based resources for lexical acquisition, speaking and pronunciation, reading,
writing, grammar, and corpora usage, but, again, primarily from the standpoint
of classroom usefulness. They finish
with a brief section on ‘integrated learning environments,’ such as the
teacher-dependent Moodle, and the
learner-centered site Livemocha. While this paper provides a strong overview
of CALL media, it is interesting to note that, aside from mention of virtual
worlds such as Second Life (which do
not meet many of the key criteria defining games), Kervin and Derewianka make no mention of language
learning games or of the implications of commercially available games for
language learning.
2.2 Social
media and CMC: Identities and Communities
Turning our focus more
specifically towards CMC, we find that it is often examined in tandem with the
social networking, blogging and chat room sites which support it. A common methodological feature of the
literature regarding social media and CMC is a focus on the emergence of
identity construction and community building which these media engender. This is one of the specific foci of Steven
Thorne and Rebecca Black’s ‘Language and Literacy Development in Computer-Mediated
Contexts and Communities,’ published March 2007 in the Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics. This article
reviews the research in “three distinct computer-mediated configurations: (1)
instructed and institutional intraclass discussion and interclass partnerships,
(2) transcultural partnerships and structured participation in “open” Internet
environments, and (3) interaction in ongoing Internet-mediated environments
that include popular culture blogs and Web sites, fanfiction communities,
language and/or culture communities, and online games.” (Thorne & Black, 2007: 133) While still a
review as opposed to original research, Thorne & Black provide a great deal
of qualitative detail, and are fairly unique in reflecting a great deal on the
learner perspective. They provide
several insights into “language development through textually mediated,
generally peer-focused, communication,” discussing “a number of pedagogical
benefits” which include more overall language production and more authentic
discourse. (ibid, 134) Of particular
interest is exploration of “non-student identities” emerging from CMC, even
within institutional contexts. (ibid, 135)
They go on to speak of the prevalent research paradigm of “general
preoccupation with the learner, at the expense of other potentially relevant social
identities.” (from Firth & Wagner, 1997: 228, in Thorne & Black,
136) This point highlights the trap of
focusing on the learner, even that of focusing on the learner from the
learner’s perspective, if the individual is still conceptualized as a learner. Furthermore it indicates a gap in the
research, one documenting the overall experiences an individual person (as
opposed to learner) encounters when navigating through mediated environments in
an L2, regardless of whether their language acquisition is purposeful or
incidental.
Other advantages of CMC over
classroom discourse mentioned are “multidirectional interaction” (ibid, 135),
“decreased anxieties” (ibid, 137), and students’ possibility to “occupy the
structural role of an expert.” (ibid, 138)
This last point is one discussed in relation to games, by Jane McGonigal
in Reality is Broken. She uses the Yiddish word naches to describe “the bursting pride
we feel when someone we’ve taught or mentored succeeds,” and states: “It’s no surprise that mentoring our friends
and family in gameplay makes us happy and brings us closer together. Paul Ekman, a pioneering emotions researcher
and an expert on the phenomenon of naches, explains that this particular
emotion is also likely an evolved mechanism, designed to enhance group
survival.” (Mc Gonigal, 2011: 87) This
point brings up the twin elements of emotion and motivation, yielding another
gap in the literature, one arguably best explored from an emic perspective,
namely, which mediated L2 experiences result in positive motivation, i.e., do
learners find motivating? This problem
can ideally be examined not only from a subjective, experiential perspective,
but additionally, through emotions research as it relates to evolutionary
theory, as McGonigal has in this case done.
In discussion of community
building, Thorne and Black first examine
what they call ICL2E, or internet-mediated intercultural second language
education, in which groups of learners from (usually two) different countries
and cultures are paired in order to learn both language and culture
collaboratively (Thorne & Black, 2007: 138). The key point they make is that of the
likelihood of “discursive gaps” or cultural misunderstandings, thus necessitating
multiple instructor roles including “consciousness raising” and modeling an
“intercultural stance” (ibid, 140) in order to help learners negotiate
meaning. This stands in contrast to
their later review of Lam’s study of another learner, Almon, who, through
participation in a more static web-based media, that of “a Web site devoted to
the Japanese pop (J-pop) singer Ryoko” had a very different experience, one
which “bolstered Almon’s confidence in communicating with a supportive,
transnational group of peers who shared his interests in popular culture.”
(ibid, 144) This brings to focus the
importance of context and intent, which may be the deciding factors in the
appearance or avoidance of cultural misunderstandings, rather than that of
synchronous or asynchronous media, or of teacher-moderation or the lack
thereof. Such a consideration begs the
question, which particular mediated contexts, and which varieties of learner
intent, are most motivating, and in what regards, and yield the least degree of
conflict and the greatest degree of inter-user synchrony?
What does emerge though, in
regard to learner motivation, is the instrumentality of relationship
development. Thorne and Black note “when personal relationships
matter, academic treatments of grammar and pragmatics attain renewed relevance
in the lives of speakers.” (ibid, 142) The final point Thorne and Black note in
regards to the commonalities they find in much of the research (Black, Lam and
Yi) on non-game Internet-mediated transcultural interaction is that “online
communities provide ELL youth with new forums for taking on powerful authorial
and social roles, even as they learn and develop fluency with multiple forms,
languages, and online registers.” (ibid, 146)
What seems to be missing, however, from the studies they review, is a
learner’s perspective on how this takes place.
Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen, in their games-focused paper ‘Moving Learning Games Forward – Obstacles, Opportunities & Openness’
(2009) also provide a strong overview of “social networking, blogging, and
other forms of user-generated content that fall under the larger banner of
participatory culture.” (Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen , 2009: 1) They begin by stating that social media are
“clearly not games” (ibid, 12). They
differentiate the two in saying that “While networking with friends, colleagues
and people of similar interests is in many cases fun, it lacks most of the
criteria (rules, goals, fantasy, etc.) that would make it a game. Certainly social networking, like just about
any activity, can be turned into a game.”
While not games, “Social networks themselves may also be powerful
learning tools. There is much research
that supports the notion of collaborative learning as an effective means of
teaching and learning” (ibid, 13). They
comment on one of the (rather predictable) ways that gamers make use of social
media “as a way to exchange information about the games, to strengthen or form
teams, as well as to provide help for new and struggling players.” (ibid, 14) As McGonigal also notes, the majority of MMO
games feature either text based or Skype type communication in order for
players to coordinate their efforts.
Other authors, notably Ravi Purushotma, Steven L. Thorne, and Julian Wheatley, in their
Web-based, link laden article, ‘Language Learning
with New Media and Video Games’ (http://www.lingualgamers.com/thesis/),
emphasize the interconnectedness of various media formats, and the fact that
‘Generation Y’ (also called ‘digital natives,’ meaning those who have grown up
with the Internet from birth) typically make use of the various media formats
available online in very fluid, connected and specialized ways.
2.3 Virtual
environments
Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen (2009) comment that virtual worlds,
of which Second Life is the prime
example, “have been call “digital dollhouses”, places where one builds virtual
objects or landscapes in which one can play with their digital representations,
or “avatars.”” (ibid, 14) They feature
“the aesthetic and controls of a game, without building in some of the critical
aspects of what make games powerful learning tools – feedback, structure,
goals, or paths to progress.” (ibid,
15) As such, while they may foster
interactivity, they leave an independent learner without any framework through
which to create a sense of achievement or to motivate action.
‘Action
Learning with Second Life – A Pilot Study,’ (2009) by C. Wagner and R. Ip reports on qualitative research in
the use of Second Life “as an action
learning environment in a senior course for management information systems
students.” (Wagner & Ip, 2009:
249) While this report is not related to
L2 learning per se, it offers a number of observations regarding virtual worlds
and the relevant learning possibilities they enable. Wagner and Ip describe ‘action learning’ as “learning
through actions and experiences” (ibid, 250), which is relatable to task based
learning (TBL) in the modern ESL classroom.
It is further relatable in that “Action learning is based on the
relationship between reflection and action.
It usually involves a group of people working together for a
concentrated period of time.” (ibid)
Virtual worlds are well-defined as “immersive, three-dimensional (3-D),
multimedia, multi-person simulation environments, where each participant adopts
an alter ego and interacts with the world in real time.” (ibid, 251) Given that “virtual worlds are in many ways
more suitable for the classroom environment [than games], in that the
instructor does not have to overlay his or her own objective system over one
implemented within a game” (ibid), they are perhaps less suitable for
autonomous learning. The authors discuss
the obvious link between simulation and training (e.g. flight simulation),
which is essentially the basis for the study.
They state “The value of virtual worlds for student learning can be
viewed as triadic,” consisting of a platform for: 1.skills development and interaction with
others, 2. the sharing of information and knowledge, and 3. business.” (ibid,
252) Thus, while virtual environments
such as Second Life provide very
little structure, they may be ideal platforms for learner activity within a
class context, or for the context of a classroom within Second Life, as noted above.
2.4 Play
In defining the conditions
of play, Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen
(2009) outline the exercise of freedom “along five distinct axes: 1. freedom to fail; 2. freedom to experiment; 3. freedom to fashion identities; 4. freedom of effort; and 5. freedom of interpretation” (Klopfer,
Osterwell & Salen, 2009: 4) These are
significant first of all because they are all freedoms, or the absence of any
constraint. While a degree of such freedom
is one of the tenets of modern CLT, even in CLT we cannot find the total
absence of constraints. Furthermore,
such a condition is the antithesis of traditional education, in which the
student (not learner) is in control of virtually no aspect of his or her
education. Furthermore, within these
conditions of play, learning becomes a personalized, contextualized,
identity-forming and highly interpretive experience.
In framing these five freedoms in relation to
games, they state: “within the proscribed
space of a game, players regularly exhibit all of the freedoms of unstructured
play. Most players undertake games in
the knowledge that failure is a possibility.
They show a willingness to experiment in their game-play, and to try on
different roles from leader to follower, novice to expert.” (from Gee, 2003 in Klopfer, Osterwell &
Salen, 2009: 5) In relation to the
questions I am posing, it is therefore essential that any study undertaken be
done so in a manner that is not prescriptive, in order to maintain these
various elements of freedom in the interest of play. Regarding the element of rules in games,
Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen make the observation that “it is in the moment
when “pushing against” [rules] is transformed into a meta-reflective “questioning
about” that learning truly takes place.” (ibid, 6) This is clearly relatable to Vygotsky’s
notion of a zone of proximal development,
in which learners always learn best when working at the outer boundary of their
abilities(Lantolf & Poehner), and that learners may approach rules much as
they approach their abilities – something to push against in the pursuit of
meaning.
Mihaly Csíkszentmihályi, a
seminal researcher in the fields of positive psychology and play, with Stith
Bennet, provide some very different
interpretations of the meaning of play in their paper ‘An Exploratory Model of Play’ (1971). Situating play
at the midpoint between worry and boredom, they state that “when we can
make each action by voluntary fiat, but still do not exhaust possible actions,
the necessary conditions for play are established.” (Csíkszentmihályi & Bennet, 1971: 46) Further characteristics of play are “the
actor’s lack of an analytic or “outside” viewpoint on his conduct: a lack of self-consciousness” (ibid, 46), and
“a measure of control over the environment, a balanced state between chaotic
worry and stultifying boredom” (ibid, 49).
Csíkszentmihályi is also the
original author of the concept of flow
experience as a key indicator of play.
He describes it as an experience when “Attention is focused on a limited
stimulus field. There is full
concentration, complete involvement.” It
is a state in which “Action and awareness merge.” (Csíkszentmihályi , 2007:
6) Furthermore, “There is freedom from
worry about failure.” (ibid, 8) Other
features of flow experience are the
disappearance of self-consciousness and distortion of time. (ibid, 12) Such an experience is described as being
auto-telic, meaning that “The experience becomes its own reward.” (ibid, 14) He explains the conditions which foster flow as being “clear goals every step of
the way”, “immediate feedback to action”, and “a balance between challenges and
skills.” As will be related below,
games, in meeting these conditions exactly, are perfect environments for
activating flow experience. From the perspective of L2 acquisition, can
such flow conditions also be met in
an Internet-mediated environment with regard to L2 use, and if so, how?
2.5 Play and
Identity
Csíkszentmihályi and Bennet state “As long as a person is
playing, his selfless attention to only “his” actions transcends his
referential (i.e. social) identity, and the ability for further negotiating
breaks down.” Csíkszentmihályi &
Bennet, 1971: 56) If this is so, it has
interesting implications for identity in the context of mediated L2
activity. Julie Beltz has written that
identity “resonates with history, culture, biography, and institution and is
often conceptualized in terms of typifications (e.g. the European, the
Californian, the Midwesterner).” (Beltz,
2002: 18) First of all, in interactive
Internet-mediated activity the individual, relying on (often ‘speech-like’)
text communication (CMC), and devoid of any actual physical representation (an avatar or other such character does not
have to reveal one’s actual physical characteristics), is able to shed any
physical differences (such as race, gender or age) with his or her L2
interlocutors in his or her expression of identity. For the L2 native interlocutors, such a
dualism should also break down, as “the traditional theoretical conflict
between individual and society (or monism and dualism) is irrelevant for a man
at play.” (Csíkszentmihályi & Bennet , 1971: 56). Furthermore, within the context of a
(role-playing) game, the native L2 interlocutors no longer maintain the same
degree of cultural authority in relation to the L2 itself, as the players are
enmeshed in the culture of the game, to which the L2 now serves primarily as a
means for coordinating activity inherent to the game rather than the L2
culture. For these reasons, it would
appear that mediated L2 learning may help to leverage the non-native learner’s
agency in ways that do not take place in physical reality.
2.6 A
Framework for the Examination of L2 Learning
In his ‘Principles of Instructed
Language Learning’ (2005) Rod Ellis presents ten principles, which,
while devised for instructed
learning, seem to be almost entirely devised from non-instructed learning, or natural acquisition. Leaving out “Instruction needs to ...”, his
first three principles read: “1. ensure
that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a
rule-based competence”, “2. ensure that
learners focus predominantly on
meaning”, and “3. ensure that learners also focus on form.” (Ellis, 2005:
2-3) It would appear evident that any
learner, instructed or not, if (physically or virtually) immersed in and
motivated to learn an L2, would follow all three of these principles. Principle four mandates “developing implicit
knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.” (ibid, 4) In natural, uninstructed L2 acquisition it
would appear that implicit knowledge would naturally occur, while explicit
knowledge would require either instruction or metacognitive analysis on the
part of the learner. Principles five,
six, seven and eight also reflect the type of non-instructed learning inherent
in acquisition: “5. take into account the learner’s ‘built-in syllabus’”, “6.
learning requires extensive L2 input”, “7. learning also requires opportunities
for output”, and “8. The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to
developing L2 proficiency.” (ibid, 5-7) Principle nine, “take account of individual
differences in learners” (ibid, 7), like principle five, would become a
non-issuesin non-instructed learning. So
too would principle ten: “examine free
as well as controlled production” (ibid, 8).
While Ellis states his
purpose in formulating these principles as meeting a need for “a set of
generalisations that might serve as the basis for language teacher education”
(ibid, 1), these ten principle may
additionally, within the context of this review, serve as a framework by which
to analyze learning experiences occurring in any mediated environment. For example, in this experience (e.g.
blogging), am I: focusing predominantly
on form or meaning? using formulaic expressions? exercising an opportunity for
input, output or interaction? Indeed,
any and all mediated L2 experiences could be analyzed through such a framework,
possibly thus providing a more coherent and well-directed learning experience.
2.7 Games
‘Moving Learning Games
Forward – Obstacles, Opportunities & Openness,’ (2009)by Klopfer, Osterwell
and
Salen also provides a succinct framework through which to examine the
common features and varieties of both games in general and learning games in
particular. In praise of the
applicability of the characteristics of gamers to educational pursuit they
state “game player’s [sic] regularly exhibit persistence, risk-taking,
attention to detail and problem-solving skills, all behaviors that ideally
would be regularly demonstrated in school.” (Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen,
2009: 1) They begin by outlining two
traditional approaches towards the creation of learning games, the first
focusing on games, perhaps at the expense of education, the second focusing on
education at the expense of the gaming experience. (ibid, 1-2)
“Gaming is play across media, time, social spaces, and networks of
meaning; it includes engagement with digital FAQs (or Frequently Asked
Questions), paper game guides, parents and siblings, the history of games,
other players, as well as the games themselves.
It requires players to be fluent in a series of connected literacies
that are multi-modal, performative, productive, and participatory in
nature. It requires an attitude oriented
toward risk-taking, meaning creation, non-linear navigation, problem-solving,
an understanding of rule structures, and an acknowledgement of agency within
that structure, to name but a few.” (ibid, 5)
While this is an extremely broad definition, it places play at the center of the gaming
experience, defining gaming not so much in relation to actual games, but rather
in relation to an attitude of play
across any mediated or non-mediated experiences.
Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen
further define “a number of types of gamers based on their playing habits. These include: · Power gamers who are the prototypical gamers mentioned above · Social gamers
who enjoy gaming as a way to interact with friends. · Leisure gamers
mainly play casual titles. Nevertheless
they prefer challenging titles and show high interest in new gaming
services. · Dormant gamers love gaming but spend little time because of family,
work, or school. They like to play with
friends and family and prefer complex and challenging games. · Incidental gamers lack motivation and play games mainly out of
boredom. · Occasional gamers play puzzle, word, and board games almost
exclusively.” (ibid, 7)
By extension, there are a
variety of game genres. These include: power games – including MMO role-playing
games (MMORPGs) such as WoW, EverQuest and Halo; casual games – such as the card games ubiquitous to most
computers and many cell phones; puzzle adventure games – such as Grim Fandango and Sam and Max, in which “players take the role of the protagonist in
a story in which they interact with a variety of characters to solve mysteries
and puzzles” (Purushtoma, Thorne & Wheatley, 2009: 26); simulation games –
such as The Sims, in which “players
are placed in charge of managing a complex system” (ibid); and social games –
such as Facebook’s Farmville or
online version of scrabble, Lexulous, both
of which leverage the power of social networks and the aspect of interaction
with friends and family. (McGonigal, 2011:81)
Such an understanding of gaming habits and genres can serve to frame and
direct game experiences. For example,
having an understanding of game genres and play modes might direct an
individual playing games in an L2 to begin with simulation and social games,
which require only basic lexis, and then move on to power games and puzzle
games, thus scaffolding their learning and setting appropriate gaming and
learning goals.
‘The
Sopranos Meets EverQuest – Social Networking in Massively Multiplayer Online
Games’ (2003), by Mikael Jakobsson and T.L. Taylor, examines socialization patterns
within one particular MMO role-playing game (MMORPG) titled EverQuest (EQ). Like most games in this genre, EQ relies on both formal and informal
grouping in order for players to accomplish tasks. This is the primary mechanism by which
MMORPGs become interactive and communicative, thereby potentially rich
environments for L2 learning. Jakobsson
and Taylor state: “By creating a group
out of characters specializing in different but complementary skills, members
can collectively take on and defeat opponents who are equal or even mightier
than the individual characters in the group.
It is only through working with other players that individual gamers
achieve maximum results.” (Jakobsson & Taylor, 2003: 83) This happens both
informally, and formally, through what are called guilds. The gist of their
argument is that socialization within EQ
appears to occur through many of the same patterns evident in Mafia culture, as
based on a representation of such culture in the popular television program The Sopranos. They discuss not only “the implicit
construction of social hierarchy” (ibid, 86), but also the implications of
‘real (offline) friend’ status within the game, the phenomenon of gamer groups
migrating together from one MMO to another, the degree of time commitment which
some guilds require of members, and the degree to which “physical or cultural
proximity and previous shared gaming experiences” serve to connect players
(ibid, 84). Jakobsson and Taylor conclude by giving credit to gamers
themselves for managing and creating the large part played by social experience
within the game: “While they are not the
designers of EQ they can be seen as the creators of their gaming experience,”
one in which all players act as “co-constructors of the game world that they,
and future players, are part of.” (ibid, 89)
Their work, while not related to L2 acquisition, serves to vividly
illustrate the social structures of the MMORPG experience in a new context, one
in which “friendships between the players could be considered to be the
ultimate exploit of the game.” (ibid, 81)
In doing so, they provide a greater appreciation for the high degree of
socialization such games engender, as well as establishing the degree to which
such games create experiential micro-universes, formed through and informed by
player interaction.
In ‘Structuring Narrative in
3D Digital Game-Based Learning Environments to Support Second Language
Acquisition’ (2010), David Neville examines L2 acquisition within
MMORPGs (which he calls ‘3D Digital Game-Based Learning Environments,’ or
3D-DGBL) from the perspective of examining how narrative “serves as a vehicle
for situating the self within a new community of practice.” (Neville, 2010: 452) Neville also comments on how MMORPG
environments differ from virtual environments in that only the former support
the emergence of distinct cultures and meaning, even narrative itself, which
arise specifically from participant interaction. (ibid, 447) His stated purpose is twofold: firstly, to
discuss the common characteristics of narrative as described from a number of
theoretical perspectives (situated cognition, SLA and game studies) as “a means
of developing meaningful, engaging, and instructional gameplay in 3D-DGBL
environments”; secondly, to provide design suggestions for performance-based
learning in such environments. (ibid)
Neville states at the outset
that he uses “the term narrative broadly in the essay to describe the dialogue
that emerges between a learner and a more capable peer, the sociocultural
settings that contextualize language production and nuance its various
manifestations, and the stories created by player interaction with a game.”
(ibid) Of interest here are many
possibilities hinted at, ones we have seen in other authors’ work. First is the phenomenon of mentoring; second,
‘sociocultural settings’ which may be, rather than language specific, specific
to the culture of the game; and lastly, the fact that the story itself, or
narrative, exists not so much in the game as in the interactions and individual
character decisions which take place in its setting. With regard to this last point and its
implications for L2 acquisition, the author remarks that “language acquisition
is not only an intra-mental process,
or one that occurs solely in the head of the language learner, but is also inter-mental in the sense that it is
situated within communities that share and shape a common linguistic system.”
(ibid, 452) In this regard, narrative is a shared
process through which L2 acquisition takes place. Narrative, furthermore “serves as a vehicle
for situating the self with a new community of practice, although it can also
function in reverse as a means of making this community meaningful on a
personal level.” (ibid) Neville mentions
other game genres (such as ‘twitch,’ or first person shooter games), which do
not afford such narrative experiences, and focuses on MMORPGs as platforms
“designed to support narrative gestalt,” and which require negotiation of
various emotional and thematic interactions, thereby serving as a basis for
both transitory player identity formation and permanent learning. (ibid, 455-7)
In seeking to develop a
“Design Rubric for Developing Performance Objectives in 3D-DGBL Environments”
(464-5) the author discusses some of the features common to MMORPGs, such as
‘cutscenes,’ which include “noninteractive scripted sequences” in order to
advance the story and move players up to a higher level, and serving as “a
“loop” through which the various traces of player interactivity are threaded,
lending an overall structure to the game experience.” (ibid, 459) He also provides illustrations of how MMORPGs
offer players multiple pathways towards the solution of problems, based on
players own personal personalities and styles. (ibid, 460-1) In discussing learning outcomes, he presents
an interesting problem: “the conundrum
persists: How does one design efficient
and effective instruction in 3D-DGBL environments when everything is a potential learning situation, when it is impossible to predict which path the
learner will take, and when every
path is a valid course of study?” (ibid, 462)
While the purposes of this review do not include the design of effective
instruction in Internet-mediated environments such as MMORPGs (or 3D-DGBL
environments), Neville’s rubric as presented on pages 464-5 includes a set of
questions regarding resource objectives, behaviors, conditions, criteria,
language, society, culture and connections, almost all of which can serve well
to shape and refine any study of L2 acquisition experience within an MMORPG
environment. The primary weakness of
Neville’s study is that, while quite thorough from the perspective of
narrative, it actually offers very little analysis of the mechanisms for L2
acquisition aside from the rather stand-alone rubric.
2.8 Games,
Play and Positive Emotions
Jane McGonigal, in her
insightful and original opus on games, Reality is Broken (2011) provides a far better and more
complete understanding of games, gamers and gaming, than any other publication
to date. In it, she outlines fourteen
ways in which games are more motivating than (traditional) reality, primarily
focusing on the capacity games have to activate peak positive emotions.
The first section of her
book, “Why Games Make Us Happy” is very much rooted in the work of
Csíkszentmihályi and other pioneers of positive psychology, as well as more
recent studies in neurochemistry, and outlines traits and features of games in
general and video games in particular.
She discusses the ways in which games ‘provoke positive emotion’
through: the voluntary undertaking of satisfying work (McGonigal, 2011: 28);
what she calls ‘fiero,’ meaning the emotional rush players experience when
triumphing over adversity in games (ibid, 33); the way video games make “it
possible to experience flow almost immediately” resulting in “a much faster
cycle of learning and reward”(ibid, 41); and the ways in which they can foster
social connection and meaning(ibid, 49).
McGonigal refers to game designers as ‘happiness engineers,’ and in
discussing the “rush of “interest” biochemicals also known as “internal
opiates,”” states that while “few of us set out intentionally to trigger these
systems,” (ibid, 48) good games, basically, are platforms designed specifically
for this purpose:
This extreme emotional activation is the primary reason why today’s
most successful computer games are so addictive and mood-boosting. When we’re in a concentrated state of
optimistic engagement, it suddenly becomes biologically more possible for us to
think positive thoughts, to make social connections, and to build personal
strengths. We are actively conditioning
our minds and bodies to be happier. (ibid, 28)
She provides greater detail
concerning all of these points. With
regard to satisfying work, she states “Satisfying work always starts with two things: a
clear goal and actionable next steps
toward achieving that goal.” (ibid, 55, original author’s bold and
italics) In discussing “fun failure” she
states “the right kind of failure feedback is a reward. It makes us more engaged and more optimistic
about our odds of success. Positive
failure feedback reinforces our sense of control over the game’s outcome. And a feeling of control in a goal-oriented
environment can create a powerful drive to succeed.” (ibid, 67) Effective failure feedback as McGonigal
describes it is often amusing, creating a lighthearted feeling. Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen also discuss
this aspect of game design, referring to it as a silly aesthetic: “This somewhat silly aesthetic invites play,
and it has appealed to a large number of fans.
Players can enjoy themselves casually without feeling pressure to
perform perfectly in the game.” (Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen, 2009:10)
In her discussion of the
social aspects of games, McGonigal describes the two phenomena of “happy
embarrassment” and “vicarious pride.” She illustrates the first of these
concepts by discussing the ways players (and NPCs) may sometimes “trash talk”
or tease each other, and discusses the psychological mechanism behind it as “a
social vaccine”: “We mostly tease and
let ourselves be teased because it feels good.
But the reason why it feels good is that it builds trust and makes us
more likable. Most of us might not realize
exactly why it enhances our social connection, but we definitely feel the emotional
net positive after a teasing.” (ibid, 85)
“Vicarious pride” is the motion we feel when we have successfully
mentored someone of lower ability level.
While often not a designed feature of games, it has been frequently
noted as a primary cultural aspect of many MMO gaming communities. It is also very much related to identity and
the concept of role-play, or taking on the roles of expert and novice. Thus, both these phenomena can be recognized
as elements of play. An additional
social phenomenon she discusses is the degree of emotional investment, in the
form of care and concern, people can develop for avatars or characters whose
development they must nurture.
McGonigal further
illustrates how MMO environments foster what she calls “ambient sociability”
(ibid, 89) and provide meaning by allowing us “to connect our daily actions to something bigger than ourselves”
(ibid, 97, original author’s italics)
She describes two requirements for such “epic context” as, first, a
shared game story which works as a “collective context for action,” and second,
the player’s experience of personal action as a kind of service in which “every
effort by one player must ultimately benefit all the other players.” (ibid,
101) By framing game experiences in such a manner it begins to become
evident that video games are in so many senses not virtual experiences, as they
have traditionally been viewed, but rather unique mediated worlds, very
different in some ways, and in other ways not so different from classrooms or
work environments, in which people work together for a collective good.
With regard to means of
measuring progress, McGonigal discusses how “leveling up,” the standard game
mechanism for entering more advanced levels of play, is, however, so
fundamentally different from, and more motivating than the standard educational
mechanism of tests and grades. And the
continuous feedback gamers receive regarding their ability is far more
immediate, instructive and motivating than any form of feedback found in
traditional education. “Real-time data
and quantitative benchmarks are the reason why gamers get consistently better
at virtually any game they play: their
performance is consistently measured and reflected back to them, with advancing
progress bars, points, levels, and achievements.” (ibid, 157) In
an MMO environment, synchronous CMC may provide similar “real time data” to the
L2 player, as the effectiveness of their communication in the pursuit of a
common game-related goal serves as a direct measure of their communicative
competence.
Much of the remainder of Reality is Broken discusses means of
using games (not only computer games) as various “reality fixes.” McGonigal’s work is very well-supported, and
her theories are illustrated with multiple examples from existing gaming
realities. McGonigal is very hopeful
about the power of games to change reality, and her enthusiasm for the subject
is infectious. Her work, in relation to this review, can help to provide an additional
framework by which to examine not only aspects of play within a mediated L2
experience, but also to evaluate the emotional texture of various mediated
experiences, and to point towards their underlying reasons. The implications of such peak positive
emotions for learning remain yet unexamined by McGonigal. While numerous authors have discussed the
desirability of positive affect within learning experiences, very few have
produced any conclusive results. While
McGonigal also has not done so, her work is instrumental in examining the mechanisms
by which games create emotionally positive experiences.
2.9 Games and
(L2) Learning
Thorn and Black (2007), in their review as
introduced above, also address games.
They begin with a brief discussion of Purushotma’s (2005) review of The Sims 2 as an L2 learning tool, which
“found that the vocabulary and tasks the game comprises were highly aligned
with the content of conventional foreign language course content,” and that
“exposure to the target language is always linked to carrying out tasks and
social actions, which concomitantly embeds vocabulary and grammatical
constructions in rich associative contexts.”
(Thorne & Black, 2007: 146)
They also discuss MMORPGs, noting research that documents the
development of “strong “projective” identities” (Gee), and the prevalence of
game cultures which promote assistance through scaffolding to novice
players. (ibid, 147) Like Purushotma, Thorne, and Wheatley, they mention the “overlapping use of
multiple information and communication tools,” which they align with the
concept of polyfocality. (ibid)
Thorne
& Black conclude by stating that further research is required in order to
“help to highlight the evolving contours of possibility for language
development in the transcultural spaces of noninstitutional online environments
and associated cultures-of-use.” (ibid)
It is interesting to note here their choice of the word development, which connotes the kind of
non-intentionality we find in the term acquisition,
as opposed to the intentional activities of teaching
or learning. Such
a study might take the form of a ‘play’-centered exploration, documenting emic
perspectives on enjoyment, adventure, meaning and identity formation and the
actual process of language acquisition through interactive and productive media
usage across multiple Internet modalities.
In ‘Personalised Learning for
Casual Games: The ‘Language Trap’ Online Language Learning Game’ (2010), authors Neil Peirce and Vincent Wade
provide a case study detailing the mechanism of an online game for the learning
of German, along with “results of an authentic evaluation of the Language Trap
game” (Pierce & Wade, 2010: 306), and an explanation and demonstration of
the efficacy of the ALIGN (Adaptive Learning In Games through Non-invasion)
system. Beginning from an historical
perspective, they, as do many other authors (Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen,
2009; Purushotma,
Thorne & Wheatley, 2012) bemoan early attempts at ‘edutainment’ games and their
failure due to lack of integration of learning and gaming content, thus
disrupting (or ‘invading’)the flow
experience described by Csíkszentmihály, and move forward to state that
successful learning games “must seamlessly integrate learning content to
present a game that blurs the boundary between where the game stops and the
learning content begins.” (Pierce & Wade, 2010: 307) They also mention that while “games can
present many of the constituents of a flow experience such as clear goals,
immediate feedback, task feasibility, and self-governance, the most important
factor, that of balanced skills and challenges, is determined not only by the
difficulty of the game but also by the player’s abilities.” (ibid, 308)
Overall, the significance of
their study in relation to this literature review is in the emphasis of the
importance of non-invasion of play experience in the learning and gaming
process. The ALIGN system is described
as a type of iCALL system providing dynamic assessment by continuously modeling
the learner, providing motivation, guidance, and meta-cognitive feedback
through a companion NPC (non-player character). (ibid, 310-12) Overall, reported student response and
learning progression was “very positive” and, in line with Csíkszentmihály’s
theory of flow in that “they didn’t
recognise how time went by whilst playing” (ibid, 314)
In ‘Learning Conversations in World of Warcraft’ (2007), authors
Bonnie A. Nardi, Stella Ly, and Justin Harris state that within the framework
of the Vygotskian notion of zone of proximal development (ZPD), their goal is
“to describe learning activity that is devoid of curriculum.” (Nardi, Ly &
Harris, 2007: 1) Their paper describes ongoing ethnographic fieldwork comprised
primarily of first-person game-playing, and examines “three kinds of
learning: fact finding, devising
tactics/strategy, and acquiring game ethos” (ibid) as occurs through in-game
CMC (chat). Within the context of WoW, they describe chat as “a community
resource for learning as well as enabling learning by those actually chatting.”
(ibid, 2) Like natural L1 language
acquisition, “In World of Warcraft, learning in conversation is event-driven
with no planned curriculum. It is
spontaneous, erratic, serendipitous, and contextual.” (ibid, 3) However, as with properly scaffolded learning
“the situated curriculum comprises a sequence of tasks for students to complete
with appropriate instruction.” (ibid) In
commenting on a chat exchange in WoW,
they state: “The information Drollnar
[an in-game character name] received was tailored to his level of knowledge, it
occurred in a social context, offered an action for him to take to further his
own ends, and took meaning from the participation of other players.” (ibid,
4) While these descriptions occur with
reference to fact-finding, they make similar observations with regard to the
additional two types of learning mentioned.
These descriptions are significant in that this type of scaffolded,
highly contextualized, meaning-driven, action-oriented, and social interaction matches perfectly with the ideal learning
situations described in the literature on L2 acquisition. One additional element the authors touch upon
is the emotive quality of CMC
exchanges. Here they suggest a need for
further research into the impact of emotion on learning, stating “We believe it
is likely that such emotion provides salience to the learned facts, heightens
attention, and adds interest.” (ibid) Again,
such an observation matches much of the literature on ideal conditions for L2
acquisition (Dörnyei, 2001), emphasizing the need for affective as well as
cognitive engagement, in addition to the need for a relaxed, supportive
learning environment. Such an understanding of emotions, from the
perspective of this literature review, will ideally be related to formalized
understanding of play as well as the triggers and features of peak emotional
experience as described by McGonigal.
Online gaming, or at least WoW,
appears to provide many of the ideal conditions for learning as mentioned in
the body of literature on L2 acquisition.
While this is a valuable study offering many interesting observations
for consideration, as its stated aim is to offer a sort of Vygotskian analysis,
it would benefit from more focused, in-depth discussion of the reported
situated learning from the Vygotskian perspective.
In ‘Learning by Design: Games
as learning machines (2004), and ‘Good Video Games and Good Learning’ (2005),
James Paul Gee outlines a number of “good learning principles, principles
supported by current research in Cognitive Science” (Gee, 2005: 34) inherent in
good video games. While there are a
number of differences between the two articles, there is also a great deal of
overlap. The 2004 article introduces
thirteen principles, while the 2005 article outlines sixteen. Principles which overlap both include: identity (games provide gamers an identity in
which they invest), production (or ‘codesign,’ by which players are not merely
consumers but also producers or creators of the game), customization (gamers
decide how they play, which meets not only differing playing but also learning
styles), well-ordered problems (earlier problems scaffold knowledge required
for later problems), challenge and consolidation (or ‘cycles of expertise,’ in
which new information once learned is called for repeatedly in order to
consolidate it), information just-in-time and on demand (new knowledge,
especially text-heavy knowledge, appears only when it is needed or when the
gamer asks for it), situated meanings (or ‘meaning as action image,’ i.e.
meaning that is contextualized in the game), pleasantly frustrating (meaning
that gamers are constantly challenged by tasks at the boundary of their ZPD),
manipulation (or ‘smart tools and distributed knowledge,’ by which gamers can
manipulate their environment, and by which individual gamers have differing
knowledge) and system thinking (knowledge fits into an overarching
system). The 2004 article also outlines
what Gee calls “fishtanks”(20) and “sandboxes” (21), both referring to tutorial
level activities or environments which allow novice gamers opportunities “to
understand the game as a whole system” through a “stripped down version” (
2004: 21) (the former), or a metaphorical “safe haven” (ibid) where learners
can act without dire repercussions (the latter). The 2005 article adds a number of
principles: interaction (by which
players interact with the game, other players, and NPC), risk-taking (achieved
through both” lowering the consequences of failure”(2005: 35) and allowing
players to use previous failures as ways of gaining feedback and determining
patterns (ibid)), agency ( a “real sense of ownership over what they are doing”
(ibid, 36)), and exploration (a non-linear attitude to knowledge acquisition
which encourages “players to explore thoroughly before moving on too fast, to
think laterally and not just linearly” (ibid)).
The value of these articles to this study is their ability not only to
justify the learning potentials engendered by video games, but also to provide
a framework through which to analyze in-game experiences.
‘Warcraft
Teaches Spanish’ is an informal blog by Dan Roy (2007), in which he
discusses reasons for choosing WoW in
particular as a platform for Spanish learning, and comments on his learning
experiences within the game. He mentions
reasons for his choice as being “it’s immersive and social and it elicits lots
of playing time.” (Roy, 2007) Also, “it
has a highly customizable interface.” He
mentions his methods of exposure to Spanish in the game as arising through
text-heavy ‘cutscenes,’ chatting, and frequent exposure to keywords. These include: words related “to my character’s primary
actions ...my character’s traits ...all the parts of my character’s body
...names of all the creatures I encounter ... the different professions players
can adopt in the game ...[and] the names of the fantasy races” He states that he learns these words easily,
and “without any extra effort.” However,
he does mention that reading cutscene text often “slows down play,” and when in
a group this can cause other players to become impatient with him. When reading such text he often makes use of
the online translation tool Ultralingua, and suggests that “this functionality
could be built into the game’s interface as a tool-tip pop—up, eliminating the
need to type the unknown word.”
(Ultralingua features a scroll-over function). He states that “Chatting with other players
in Spanish is perhaps the most compelling way to become more comfortable with
the language.” He also mentions the
possibility and hope of setting up “a guild which incorporates voice chat as
well.” He says, however, that overall
his “initial impressions of WoW as a language learning tool are mixed.” This is because of long playing periods which
do not require language, and the inclusion of “very little spoken word.” For someone such as myself, who has yet to
experience MMORPGs first hand, this short blog cuts right to the chase in
providing very direct information regarding the practicalities of L2 use in
such environments.
Dionne Soares PhD.
(Linguistics) dissertation, ‘Second
Language Pragmatic Socialization in World of Warcraft’ (2010) is a tangentially
relevant ethnographic study. [H10] The stated purpose of the author: “The overall goal of this dissertation is to
explore the social environment of World of Warcraft as a venue for second
language socialization, the process through which “persons become competent
members of social groups” (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986 : 167) by using
language in ways deemed appropriate by the community. Specifically, this study examines how the
learners became socialized to the pragmatic norms of a virtual community of
Spanish speaking gamers in World of Warcraft.” (Soares, 2010: 2)
2.10 Conclusion
In summary, a number of
major contributions to a better understanding of L2 learning within
Internet-mediated environments have been presented here. Robert Blake, and also Lisa Kervin with
Beverly Derewianka provide broad overview studies revealing the breadth of
Internet-mediated experiences within which L2 learning can take place,
particularly from the teacher’s perspective.
Steven Thorne and Rebecca Black discuss the emergence of distinct
communities and identities, as well as the importance of relationship
development, through CMC enabled activities.
Klopfer, Osterwell and Salen also discuss CMC technology in relation to
L2 learning. In their broad study they
additionally provide insight into social networks and virtual worlds, as well
as offering very informative discussion on play, freedoms and games. Wagner and Ip discuss the use of the virtual
world Second Life as a platform for
‘action learning.’ Csíkszentmihályi and Bennet add greatly to the discussion on
play, touching on the relation between play and identity, as well as defining
and outlining the experience of flow. Rod Ellis provides a set of language learning
principles which can serve as a means by which to interpret L2 learning within
mediated environments. Klopfer,
Osterwell and Salen discuss different types of gamers, while Purushtoma, Thorne
and Wheatley, along with Jane McGonigal, elaborate on different game
genres. Jakobsson and Taylor examine the
importance of socialization patterns in one MMORPG, EverQuest, and the means by which CMC enables this. David Neville examines L2 acquisition within
MMORPGs through the vehicle of narrative.
McGonigal discusses the mechanisms by which games create positive
emotions. Peirce and Wade discuss the
mechanisms for L2 learning in a specific game devised for the purpose, The
‘Language Trap,’ and highlight the importance of integrating learning in a
non-intrusive manner in order to maintain flow. Nardi, Ly and Harris discuss the contextualized learning
which takes place through CMC conversations in WoW as “learning activity that is devoid of curriculum.” (1) James Gee provides a compendium of mechanisms
by which games engender learning. And
finally, Dan Roy discusses his personal experiences using WoW as a platform for learning Spanish. Purushtoma, Thorne and Wheatley offer two
additional articles which deserve review in this paper at a later point, as
does Dianne Soares’ PhD. dissertation.
This literature review is
significant to the field of TESOL as a
whole primarily for the greater understanding of how Internet-mediated
experiences can lead to L2 acquisition, both with and without the supervision
of a teacher. It also sheds light on the
related processes of emerging identity formation and community building
engendered by such experiences. Finally,
it points towards likely future directions for the field of TESOL as a whole,
which, as part of a global system, is being transformed by the Internet much as
every other realm of life is being transformed.
More specifically, in
relation to this proposed study, this review identifies a number of frameworks that
will be instrumental in framing both the collection and analysis of data. These include: Ellis’s ten principle of instructed learning,
by which to analyze learning experiences occurring in any mediated
environment; an understanding of game
genres and play modes; Csíkszentmihályi
and Bennet’s theories of play; McGonigal’s work, which provides a
framework by which to examine not only aspects of play within a mediated L2
experience, but also to evaluate the emotional texture of various mediated
experiences, and point towards their underlying reasons; and Gee’s work, which
serves as a framework for examining learning mechanisms within game play.
Nonetheless, while all of
these studies circle around and answer aspects of my original question, none of
them get to the heart of the matter:
From the emic perspective, in the process of non-instructed,
Internet-mediated L2 activity, what activities best encapsulate the elements of
both play and positive affect while leading to L2 acquisition? Some authors come closer to others in
arriving at an emic perspective, but by and large the point of view taken is an
etic one, one which looks at various mediated experiences with the learner in
mind, but not from the perspective of an individual (not specifically a learner), immersed in various
Internet-mediated L2 experiences. This
is the primary weakness I have encountered in the literature in consideration
of the question I am posing. Soares’
dissertation (2010) may come closest to the perspective I wish to
discover. However, from the title of her
dissertation it is clear that her focus is on socialization and pragmatics,
while mine is concerned with the intersection of play, positive emotion and L2
acquisition.
This research will use two research methods. The first is in the
form of two online surveys (questionnaires), followed by interviews, providing
both quantitative and qualitative data.
The second is in the form of a participant-observer ethnography,
providing rich and detailed qualitative data.
The primary purpose for undertaking two research methods is
for triangulation of data, in the interest of improving both reliability and
validity of any findings. Data from the
two aspects of the research will be correlated both graphically, and in prose
form, comparing and contrasting, and discussing similar themes between online
L2 learning experiences, in English or Thai, thus using the different
instruments for triangulation of data.
3.1 Part I - Population
and Participants
The first portion of the research
will have two participant pools, each with a minimum group size of 40. The first pool of participants will be
English language learners, of varying nationalities, for whom English is a
second language. They will range in age
from early teens to sixties.
Participants will be primarily self-chosen (volunteer) and obtained
through convenience sampling. Contrary
to the traditional view of convenience sampling, in which participants chosen
are “the nearest individuals” (Nunan & Bailey, 2009: 128), convenience
occurs through Internet-mediated proximity. The survey will be promulgated
through my network of friends, former students, and former and current
colleagues. As a result, I anticipate
that the majority of participants will be located in Southeast Asia, primarily
in Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and China.
However, it is possible that participants might be located anywhere in
the world.
The
second pool of participants will be Thai language learners, of varying
nationalities, for whom Thai is a second language. They will range in age from twenties to
sixties. These participants will also be
primarily self-chosen (volunteer) and obtained through similar convenience
sampling. The survey will be promulgated
through former Thai language classmates, as well as the Thai language
departments at both Payap University and A.U.A. (American Alumni Association,
Chiang Mai). The survey may also,
depending on availability, be promulgated through a Thai language learning
online forum, such as www.womenlearningthai.com. As a result,
I anticipate that the majority of participants will be located in
Thailand. The salient characteristic of
all participants, in addition to their being non-native speakers of either Thai
or English, is that they will be Internet-users. This characteristic is assured through the
nature of the research instrument – a survey which is only accessible
online.
Participants
will be selected for interviews based on a number of factors. From the first pool of volunteer participants
(English language learners), I will make selection giving preference to those
who indicate the greatest number of years learning English, the greatest number
of hours spent in online English activity, and use of the greatest variety of
Internet-mediated modalities.
Additionally, those most forthcoming with detailed responses to
open-ended questions will receive preference.
The same set of factors will be applied to the second pool of volunteer
participants (Thai language learners), reflecting Thai language activity
respectively.
3.1.1 Part I - Research Instruments
The research instruments for the first portion of the research are two highly similar
online surveys (questionnaires). I initially created the survey for English language learners
based on a number of factors. These include: theories and technologies presented in the
literature review, and personal experience as an Internet user, as a language learner, and as
a language teacher. The survey for Thai language learners was then modeled on the first
survey for English language learners. The working prototypes for these surveys are available
at http://www.esurveycreator.com/live.php?code=ec2baad[H12] and
http://www.esurveycreator.com/live.php?code=b1d400c.
s can be seen from the questions in the surveys, their purpose is to determine the various
ways in which users (learners) make use of different Internet-mediated activities in English
or Thai, respectively, and the degree to which they experience positive affect (“fun”) in
relation to those differing activities. These surveys have been trialed for feedback with over
ten different people, including professional academics, students and teachers, and have
been modified according to feedback. Adding further to the reliability of the surveys, the
Internet based system hosting the surveys prevents any individual from taking any survey
more than once. It also randomly shifts the order of multiple-choice answers in order to
counteract potential answer preference based on layout location. These surveys will be
followed by a limited number (five) of online (CMC enabled) interviews with learners of
English regarding their English language Internet-mediated experiences, and by a limited
number (3 to 5) video recorded interviews with learners of Thai regarding their Thai language
Internet-mediated experiences.
3.2
Ethnography - Participant
In
the ethnographic portion of the research, I will be both the sole participant
and sole observer, that is to say, a participant-observer. As participant, I will conduct research
(which is to say, engage in internet-mediated Thai language learning/usage activity)
daily through the use of various internet platforms, both mobile device
(Samsung galaxy Y) and computer.
Presently, I predict that the platforms I will most frequently use will
consist of sites designed specifically for language learning, such as
thai-language.com (http://www.thai-language.com), google translate (http://translate.google.com), chat, as available through Facebook (http://www.facebook.com), MSN (www.hotmail.com), and camfrog (www.camfrog.com). As these
platforms most suit my current learning level, I will most likely start out
using such sites. However, as my ability
increases, I may also include use of Facebook games, blogging (both for reading
and writing), and possible MMORPGs (of which WoW is only one example). In order to maintain the greatest sense of
agency and play, it is important that I not be prescriptive in regards to which
variety of platforms I might use, but rather, pick and choose and naturally
gravitate towards whichever seems to suit my language level and mood at any
particular time. Nonetheless, I intend
to keep a regular minimal level of daily activity of 3 (three) hours per day,
five days per week (during the first two months, and of three days per week
during the final month).
To provide some background on myself
as participant, I consider myself to be multi-lingual, having learned and at
certain points in my life spoken fluently a number of languages, including
French, Mandarin, Japanese, and Indonesian.
I learned all of these languages through instructed study, with the
exception of Indonesian, which I seemed to ‘pick up’ (acquire) rather
naturally, with very little self study, over a period of eleven years living in
Bali. While I do not actively use any of
the other languages at this point (although I rather passively watch a good
deal of subtitled French TV and film), I continue to use Indonesian on a very
regular (almost daily) basis through chatting and text messaging. Presently, I have lived in Thailand for one
and a half years, and have had 180 hours of classroom instruction in Thai
listening and speaking, and approximately 60 hours of classroom instruction in
Thai reading and writing. Without hesitation I can say that I have found Thai
to be by far the most difficult of any languages I have ever learned. As a result, my attitude towards the learning
of Thai has not been as optimistic, or at times enthusiastic, as my learning of
other languages has been. Socially, I
have found friendship with non-English speaking Thais to be elusive, and so,
although I live in Thailand, I have very few (2) friends with whom I speak in
Thai on even as much as a weekly basis.
While I have found it difficult to befriend Thais in person, I have
found them more eager to (text) chat online, provided they can speak a bit of
English, or I can type and read a bit of Thai.
3.2.1 Ethnography
– Research Instruments
As
a researcher I will track my activity through a number of instruments. First of all, I will keep a daily learning
log, in which I will make daily notes focusing on my internet-mediated
experience, particularly in relation to the elements of agency, positive affect
and play, and, of course, any clear evidence of learning. I will also keep records (transcripts) of chat activity. At some point it is likely that I will start
my own blog, and post blogs in Thai, an activity and instrument which will
serve purposes of both participant and observer at the same time.
An additional element of instrumentation will be an entry and
exit proficiency test of my Thai ability.
While progress in my ability level should become evident through
improvement in the quality of my chat dialogs and blog posts, in order to add
greater validity and reliability to any assessment of my language ability, an
additional instrument should be included.
I will leave the form of such tests to my advisor, Ajarn Jenjit. It should be noted here that any such tests
serve as an addendum, rather than as core instruments of my study, as the
primary foci of my study are not actual progress in language ability, but
rather on the technological platforms that make such progress possible, and the
learner’s experiences of agency, positive affect, and play as generated through
interaction with such platforms.
3.3 Procedure of Conducting the Study
3.3.1 Surveys and Interviews
The online survey portion of the
research will be conducted during the month of August, to be followed by online
and in-person interviews during the months of August and Septe[H13] mber. [For further
details regarding promulgation of surveys and conducting interviews, please see
section 3.1].
3.3.2
Ethnography
Upon approval of this proposal, I
will begin the ethnographic portion of my study with an entry test assessing my
Thai language proficiency (as mentioned above).
Following this, I will engage in a prolonged period of Internet-mediated
Thai learning and Thai usage activities.
I add emphasis to usage (rather than learning) activities here,
as an important element of my study regards the experience of learning as it
takes place through usage, particularly in instances when the learner does not
regard himself as being or feeling as a learner, but rather as a user of
language. I will maintain a minimum
activity period of three hours per day, with NO maximum – I might end up
spending as much as 8 or 10 hours a day online, and interacting with and
through language primarily in Thai, provided that what I am doing is
motivating, and that I still take time to make observer notes. Soares, in her dissertation, notes several
days where she spent up to 12 or 13 hours online and in game-play, without even
noticing the passage of time. It is
because I am intrigued by the possibility of such activity, and the language
learning progress it might engender, that I set no upward limit for
myself. I intend to maintain such
activity five days per week during the month of August and three days per week
during September 2012. During this
period I will also be acting as observer, utilizing the instruments described
in 2.9. Furthermore, during this time
(and especially in the latter months of August and September), I will be processing
data, as described in 2.9. [Check this number, it may change.] At the end of
September I will undergo an exit proficiency test.
3.4
Data Analysis
Data from the surveys
(questionnaire) will be both quantitative and qualitative. Data will be collected automatically through
the system provided by esurveycreator (http://www.esurveycreator.com). Data will be
analyzed in order to indicate frequency of responses general themes and
trends. Response frequency will be
presented in numeric and pictographic format, while themes and trends will be
discussed qualitatively, in prose format.
Data
from the interviews will be qualitative, and will be analyzed for themes,
examining both similarities and differences with regards to learners’
subjective experiences both between individual learners and between the two
groups of language learners with differing target L2s.
I will conduct data analysis of the participatory ethnography
part by means of examining the results of all instruments (chat dialogs,
learning logs, blog posts, and possibly others not yet predicted), and
filtering them for various themes as well as outliers. In order to provide a framework and cohesion
to analysis, I intend to utilize a number of frameworks already assembled by
other authors. Notably, Reality is
Broken (2011), by Jane McGonigal, provides a framework for examining the
ways in which games (and by extension, a wider variety of Internet-mediated
experiences) activate positive affect. I
may also refer to J.P. Gee with regard to the mechanisms by which games (and by
extension, a wider variety of Internet-mediated experiences) promote
learning. Furthermore, many of the
concepts regarding play as outlined in the literature review, notably the five
freedoms (Klopfer, Osterwell & Salen, 2009), can serve as means of
analyzing experiences recorded in regard to both agency and play. Finally, Rod Ellis’s ‘Principles of Instructed
Language Learning’ (2005) can serve to analyse recorded experiences,
particularly chat and blog activity, from a language learning perspective. Data will be presented in prose form, as is
appropriate for ethnography.
Finally, data from the two survey
pools (English language learners and Thai language learners) will be compared
for any similarities and differences. To
the degree that Internet experience patterns and themes are similar across the
two groups, it may be concluded that the Internet-mediated L2 experience is
similar regardless of the target L2.
Additionally, Internet experience patterns and themes identified in the
survey and interview data from the Thai language learners’ pool will be
compared with the Internet experience patterns and themes I will have
identified in ethnographic research section.
By this means, I may establish the degree to which my personal
Internet-mediated L2 experiences match those of other users. To the degree that similarities are found, I may
conclude that my personal experience is representative of the Thai learner
participant pool as a whole. Finally, to
the degree that similarities are found across data from all three sources –
English language learners (surveys and interviews), Thai language learners
(surveys and interviews), and myself (ethnography) – I may conclude that the
experience patterns and themes identified are transferable to Internet-mediated
L2 usage in general, regardless of the target L2.
4. Duration/Timelines/Time of the Study Process
The duration of active research is a two month period comprising
August and September 2012. Further compilation and analysis of
data will take place during a two week period during the first two weeks of
October 2012.
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